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12 and 105)

Given the limited effectiveness of reduced-harm nicotine products labeled and regulated as medicines, consumer-oriented reduced-risk nicotine alternatives may have a meaningful role in promoting positive change

The etiology of this dysbiosis remains unknown, but its health consequences are significant, including obstetrical complications, increased risk of sexually transmitted infections and urogenital infections

43:398404 Budin SB, Kho JH, Lee JH, Ramalingam A, Jubaidi FF, Latif ES et al (2017) Low-dose nicotine exposure induced the oxidative damage of reproductive organs and altered the sperm characteristics of adolescent male rats

However, apart from smoking, other factors such as regular heavy alcohol consumption [47], certain medications, co-morbidities, autoimmune diseases and other environmental factors might also contribute to abnormalities in semen parameters, morphology and impaired motility and should further be investigated [48]

People should never stop or change medication without seeking professional medical advice first