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They absorb medication unpredictably, which means your carefully calibrated dose may not deliver the blood levels you expect

Graphical abstract Access this article Similar content being viewed by others Abbreviations AKT: Protein kinase B (PKB) AMPK: AMP-activated protein kinase ATG16L1: Autophagy related gene16L1 ATP: Adenosine triphosphate BMP4: Bone morphogenetic protein 4 CA2: Carbonic anhydrase 2 CDK: Cyclin dependent kinases CDX2: Homeobox protein CDX2 CKI: Casein kinase I COX2: Cyclooxygenase DLL: Delta like canonical notch ligand eEF2: Eukaryotic elongation factor 2 eEF2K: Eukaryotic elongation factor 2 kinase eIF-4e: Eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E EGF: Epidermal growth factor ERK: Extracellular signal regulated kinase EPHB2: Ephrin type-B receptor 2 FAK: Focal adhesion kinase GATA: GATA binding protein G-CSF: Granulocyte-colony stimulating factor GSK3: Glycogen synthase kinase 3 hATH1 and mATH1: Human and mouse atonal homolog 1 HES1: Hairy/enhancer of split 1 HEY1: Hairy/enhancer-of-split related with YRPW mortif 1 IFN: Interferon IGF-1: Insulin growth factor 1 IkB: Inhibitor of kappa B IKK: IkB kinase IRAK1: Interleukin-1 receptor associated kinase IRS: Insulin receptor substrate JAK: Janus kinase JNK: c-Jun N-terminal kinases KRAS: Kirsten rat sarcoma viral oncogene homolog LEF1: Lymphoid enhancer binding factor 1 LRP5/6: Low density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 5/6 MEK: Mitogen activated protein/extracellular signal regulated kinase kinase MUC: Mucin MMP: Matrix metalloproteinase NECD: Notch extra-cellular domain NFkB: Nuclear factor kappa B NOD2: Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-containing protein 2 NLRP3: Nod-like receptor family pyrin domain containing 3 PAMP: Pathogen associated molecular pattern PDK1: Phosphoinositide dependent kinase 1 PtdIns: Phosphatidylinositide PI3K: Phosphoinositide 3-kinase PTEN: Phosphatase and tensin homolog deleted on chromosome 10 RAC1: Ras-related C3 botulinum toxin substrate 1 REG: Regenerating gene gamma RTK: Receptor tyrosine kinase SIRT1: Sirtuin 1 SOCS3: Suppressor of cytokine signaling 3 STAT3: Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 TAB: TAK1 binding proteins TAK1: Transforming growth factor beta-activated kinase 1 TEAD: Transcription enhancer factor TEF-1 TCF: T cell factor transcription factor TLR: Toll-like receptor TM4SF4: Transmembrane 4 L six family member 4 TNFR: Tumor necrosis receptor TRAF: TNFR associated factor References Ayabe T, Satchell DP, Wilson CL, Parks WC, Selsted ME, Ouellette AJ (2000) Secretion of microbicidal alpha-defensins by intestinal Paneth cells in response to bacteria